How does neo-Marxist or post-Marxist theories of ideology differ from the classical Marxist tradition Essay Example

How does neo-Marxist or post-Marxist theories of ideology differ from the classical Marxist tradition? Essay In a recent BBC online poll for finding the greatest thinker of the Millenium, Karl Marx came first. That Marx beat Albert Einstein, Charles Darwin and Stephen Hawking among other leaders in their fields amounts to a big statement of Marx’s relevance in the new millenium. The relevance of the results is magnified when we consider that neo-liberal capitalism has established itself as the dominant economic ideology today. With many leading economists of our time, including Thomas Friedman, Joseph Heath (and to a lesser extent Paul Krugman and Joseph Stiglitz) not being critical of the capitalist ideology, the poll results give away the public pulse on this important issue. It is reasonable to assume that public sentiment and government economic policies (usually informed by contemporary economists noted above) are pulling in opposite directions. And the tensions created by these opposing tendencies are already giving rise to widespread social unrest, as shown by the emergen ce of the global solidarity movement and the World Social Forum. (Frankel,1997, p.58) In this context, it makes for an interesting exercise to understand contemporary interpretations, revisions and adaptations of Marxism, which have come to be termed variously as neo-Marxism and post-Marxism. Some of the leading figures in the neo-Marxist movement are Georg Lukacs, Antonio Gramsci, Max Weber, Karl Korsch and others. To a lesser extent French existentialist philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre and Frankfurt School founders Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno contributed to the broader understanding of traditional Marxist theories. One of the driving forces for neo-Marxist and post-Marxist thought is the perceived inadequacies of conventional Marxist ideology in explaining and providing solutions to common politico-economic problems. For example, in the century and a half that has passed since Marx’s original theoretical formulation, only a few violence-ridden revolutions have taken place – a fact that belies Marx’s prophecies on communist revolutions. The establishment of socialist regimes at the end of such revolutions too have not lasted for long (barring the case of China). Even politically overhauling events such as the two world wars have not spurre d the implementation of communist ideology in a meaningful manner. While the erstwhile Soviet Union was nominally a communist state, in reality it was a brutal dictatorship not hesitant to crack the whip on its own masses. In the case of China, which is considered the last bastion for Marxist ideology, inequities between the elite and the masses has widened multi-fold since the country joined the neo-liberal bandwagon. (Frankel,1997, p.63) It is no surprise then, that traditional Marxism continues to be scrutinized and analysed for possible chinks in its ideological composition. This is the rationale for the emergence of neo-Marxist and post-Marxist ideologies of the last century, which is continuing even today. While neo-Marxist ideologies that have emerged in the twentieth century can be said to refine and reconfigure aspects of traditional Marxism, post-Marxism goes a step further and radically redefines its theoretical foundations. We will write a custom essay sample on How does neo-Marxist or post-Marxist theories of ideology differ from the classical Marxist tradition? specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on How does neo-Marxist or post-Marxist theories of ideology differ from the classical Marxist tradition? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on How does neo-Marxist or post-Marxist theories of ideology differ from the classical Marxist tradition? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Intellectuals like Antonio Gramsci, Georg Lukacs and Karl Korsch are identified as the first wave of neo-marxist theorists, who have made immense contributions to the Marxist discourse. Antonio Gramsci was born in 1891, into a poor Italian family. Having seen his father’s financial struggles first-hand, as well as suffering due to his chronic bad health, it was natural for Gramsci to gravitate toward Marxist ideology. Despite not having a strong formal education, the self-educated Gramsci soon gained a reputation for his insightful scholarship and revolutionary thoughts. At a very young age he became the leader of the Communist Party of Italy. But the prospects for both his own personal security and the survival of his party were threatened by the rise of Fascism under Benito Mussolini. (Mclellan, 2007, p.11) Inspired by Marxist ideology at a very young age, Gramsci’s lifetime work involved identifying drawbacks in traditional Marxist thought and offering new solutions for old problems. One of his chief contributions was the notion of ‘hegemony’, which can be defined as the ideological co-option of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie. Gramsci was the first to identify that physical force is no longer the primary instrument of coercion and subordination of the proletariat. To the contrary it is the ideological conversion of the minds of the working class into believing the bourgeoisie propaganda. It should be remembered that under traditional Marxist framework, it was state power, as expressed by the police and bureaucracy which was the primary instrument of working class subordination. Gramsci correctly identified and expressed how this no longer holds true. Indeed, while Marx recognized the role of police in maintaining economic order, it was neo-Marxists such as Gramsci and Weber who explained new manifestations of power. (Mclellan, 2007, p.142) Gramsci notes in his Prison Notebooks that hegemony is a condition â€Å"in which the supremacy of a social group is achieved not only by physical force (which Gramsci called â€Å"domination† or â€Å"command†) but also through consensual submission of the very people who were dominated (a phenomenon that Gramsci variously called â€Å"leadership,† â€Å"direction,† or â€Å"hegemony†).† (Litowitz, 2000. p. 515) He goes on to say that there are two axes of domination: â€Å"The supremacy of a social group manifests itself in two ways, as â€Å"domination† and as â€Å"intellectual and moral leadership†. A social group dominates antagonistic groups, which it tends to â€Å"liquidate†, or to subjugate perhaps even by armed force; it leads kindred and allied groups. A social group can, and indeed must, already exercise â€Å"leadership† before winning governmental power (this indeed is one of the principal conditions for the winning of such power); it subsequently becomes dominant when it exercises power, but even if it holds it firmly in its grasp, it must continue to â€Å"lead† as well.† (Litowitz, 2000. p. 515) Gramsci’s notion of hegemony finds resonance in modern political discourse in the works of Noam Chomsky, the MIT linguist and philosopher. His book Manufacturing Consent (first published in 1988 and made into an award winning documentary film a few years later) talks about ruling-class propaganda apparatus, which has become the most potent mechanism of suppressing dissent and unrest in the general population. Drawing upon the conception of ‘hegemony’ by Gramsci, Chomsky himself had written a book titled ‘Hegemony or Survival’, which is a strong critique of American foreign policy under neo-liberal capitalist ideology. Unlike Gramsci, though, Chomsky cannot be bracketed under neo-Marxist or post-Marxist ideologies. While decidedly belonging to the American and global Left, Chomskyan analysis is remarkable for its ideological underplay while maintaining analytic rigour. (Bieler Morton, 2004, p.86) While the connection between the pervasion of hegemony and the education system is articulated most clearly by Chomsky, it was Gramsci who first identified its presence. According to him, the term ‘intellectual’ in the conventional sense is no longer accurate in describing those representatives of bourgeoisie who assume positions of power in the academia and mainstream media. In media parlance, what are called ‘talking heads’ are there to serve the interests of their own class, which is usually the ruling class. And hence, their interpretations and opinions should be treated with scepticism by the working classes. (Bieler Morton, 2004, p.89) Having first recognized that hegemony entails the battle for people’s minds, Gramsci went on to point out the role of bourgeoisie intellectuals in perpetrating hegemony by subtly restricting the range of thought and opinion. Hegemony could be seen in operation in major institutions such as the courts and th e parliaments. While the conventional mode of domination is linked to â€Å"coercive state action by the courts, the police, the army, and the national guard†, the modern mode of hegemony is â€Å"more insidious and complicated to achieve. It involves subduing and co-opting dissenting voices through subtle dissemination of the dominant group’s perspective as universal and natural, to the point where the dominant beliefs and practices become an intractable component of common sense. In a hegemonic regime, an unjust social arrangement is internalized and endlessly reinforced in schools, churches, institutions, scholarly exchanges, museums, and popular culture. Gramsci’s work on hegemony provides a useful starting point for legal scholars who understand that domination is often subtle, invisible, and consensual.† (Litowitz, 2000. p. 515) Max Weber is another important intellectual who has added to the neo-Marxist body of work. Weber, who was a successor to the socio-economic analytic tradition established by Marx, made critical observations of many of Marx’s theories and expanded traditional Marxist ideology. While Weber made important contributions to Marx’s work, he also brought in unique sociological perspectives to communist commentary. In this sense, Weber’s approach to explaining the rise of modern society can be stated as a ‘debate with the ghost of Karl Marx’ (Bakker, 1999, p.289). To begin with, there is considerable overlap between both their viewpoints, especially with respect to state power in capitalist societies. This is most visible in the role played by police, which is a law-enforcing agency. While the stated purpose of this agency is to serve the interests of the general public, it inevitably sides-up the wealthy and the powerful. In what is a neo-Marxist sys thesis spanning Marx, Weber and Chomsky, the role played by propaganda in modern societies can be seen as another manifestation of the conventional role played by police in controlling public unrest.

The Mughal Empires 300-Year Rule of India

The Mughal Empires 300-Year Rule of India The Mughal Empire (also known as Mogul, Timurid, or Hindustan empire) is considered one of the classic periods of Indias long and amazing history. In 1526, Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad Babur, a man with Mongol heritage from central Asia, established a foothold in the Indian subcontinent which was to last for more than three centuries. By 1650, the Mughal Empire was one of three leading powers of the Islamic world- the so-called Gunpowder Empires- which also included the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia. At its height, around 1690, the Mughal Empire ruled almost the entire subcontinent of India, controlling four million square kilometers of land and a population of about 160 million. Economics and Organization The Mughal emperors (or Great Mughals) were despotic rulers who relied upon and held sway over a large number of ruling elites. The imperial court included officers, bureaucrats, secretaries, court historians, and accountants, who produced astounding documentation of the empires day-to-day operations. The elites were organized on the basis of the mansabdari system, a military and administrative system developed by Genghis Khan and applied by the Mughal leaders to classify the nobility. The emperor controlled the nobles lives, from who they married to their education in arithmetic, agriculture, medicine, household management, and the rules of government. The economic life of the empire was buoyed by a strong international market trade, including goods produced by farmers and artisans. The emperor and his court were supported by taxation and the ownership of a region known as the Khalisa Sharifa, which varied in size with the emperor. The rulers also established Jagirs, feudal land grants which were commonly administered by local leaders. Rules of Succession Although each classic period Mughal ruler was the son of his predecessor, the succession was by no means one of primogeniture- the eldest did not necessarily win his fathers throne. In the Mughal world, every son had an equal share in his fathers patrimony, and all males within a ruling group had a right to succeed to the throne, creating an open-ended, if contentious, system. Each son was semi-independent of his father and received semipermanent territorial holdings when he was deemed old enough to manage them. There were often fierce battles among the princes when a ruler died. The rule of succession could be summed up by the Persian phrase Takht, ya takhta (either throne or funeral bier). The Founding of the Mughal Empire The young prince Babur, who was descended from Timur on his fathers side and Genghis Khan on his mothers, finished his conquest of northern India in 1526, defeating the Delhi Sultan Ibrahim Shah Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat. Babur was a refugee from the fierce dynastic struggles in Central Asia; his uncles and other warlords had repeatedly denied him rule over the Silk Road cities of Samarkand and Fergana, his birthright. Babur was able to establish a base in Kabul, though, from which he turned south and conquered much of the Indian subcontinent. Babur called his dynasty Timurid, but it is better known as the Mughal Dynasty- a Persian rendering of the word Mongol. Baburs Reign Babur was never able to conquer Rajputana, home of the warlike Rajputs. He ruled over the rest of northern India and the plain of the Ganges River, though. Although he was a Muslim, Babur followed a rather loose interpretation of the Quran in some ways. He drank heavily at his famously lavish feasts, and also enjoyed smoking hashish. Baburs flexible and tolerant religious views would be all the more evident in his grandson, Akbar the Great. In 1530, Babur died at the age of 47. His eldest son Humayan fought off an attempt to seat his aunts husband as emperor  and assumed the throne. Baburs body was returned to Kabul, Afghanistan, nine years after his death, and buried in the Bagh-e Babur. Height of the Mughals Humayan was not a very strong leader. In 1540, the Pashtun ruler Sher Shah Suri defeated the Timurids, deposing Humayan. The second Timurid emperor only regained his throne with aid from Persia in 1555, a year before his death, but at that time he managed even to expand on Baburs empire. When Humayan died after a fall down the stairs, his 13-year-old son Akbar was crowned. Akbar defeated the remnants of the Pashtuns and brought some previously unquelled Hindu regions under Timurid control. He also gained control over Rajput through diplomacy and marriage alliances. Akbar was an enthusiastic patron of literature, poetry, architecture, science, and painting. Although he was a committed Muslim, Akbar encouraged religious tolerance  and sought wisdom from holy men of all faiths. He became known as Akbar the Great. Shah Jahan and the Taj Mahal Akbars son, Jahangir, ruled the Mughal Empire in peace and prosperity from 1605 until 1627. He was succeeded by his own son, Shah Jahan. The 36-year-old Shah Jahan inherited an incredible empire in 1627, but any joy he felt would be short-lived. Just four years later, his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal, died during the birth of their 14th child. The emperor went into deep mourning and was not seen in public for a year. As an expression of his love, Shah Jahan commissioned the building of a magnificent tomb for his dear wife. Designed by the Persian architect Ustad Ahmad Lahauri, and constructed of white marble, the Taj Mahal is considered the crowning achievement of Mughal architecture. The Mughal Empire Weakens Shah Jahans third son, Aurangzeb, seized the throne and had all of his brothers executed after a protracted succession struggle in 1658. At the time, Shah Jahan was still alive, but Aurangzeb had his sickly father confined to the Fort at Agra. Shah Jahan spent his declining years gazing out at the Taj and died in 1666. The ruthless Aurangzeb proved to be the last of the Great Mughals. Throughout his reign, he expanded the empire in all directions. He also enforced a much more orthodox brand of Islam, even banning music in the empire (which made many Hindu rites impossible to perform). A three-year revolt by the Mughals long-time ally, the Pashtun, began in 1672. In the aftermath, the Mughals lost much of their authority in what is now Afghanistan, seriously weakening the empire. The British East India Company Aurangzeb died in 1707, and the Mughal state began a long, slow process of crumbling from within and without. Increasing peasant revolts and sectarian violence threatened the stability of the throne, and various nobles and warlords sought to control the line of weak emperors. All around the borders, powerful new kingdoms sprang up and began to chip away at Mughal land holdings. The British East India Company (BEI) was founded in 1600, while Akbar was still on the throne. Initially, it was only interested in trade  and had to content itself with working around the fringes of the Mughal Empire. As the Mughals weakened, however, the BEI grew increasingly powerful. The Last Days of the Mughal Empire In 1757, the BEI defeated the Nawab of Bengal and French company interests at the Battle of Palashi. After this victory, the BEI took political control of much of the subcontinent, marking the start of the British Raj in India. The later Mughal rulers held on to their throne, but they were simply puppets of the British. In 1857, half of the Indian Army rose up against the BEI in what is known as the Sepoy Rebellion or the Indian Mutiny. The British home government intervened to protect its own financial stake in the company  and put down the rebellion. Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was arrested, tried for treason, and exiled to Burma. It was the end of the Mughal Dynasty. Legacy The Mughal Dynasty left a large and visible mark on India. Among the most striking examples of Mughal heritage are the many beautiful buildings that were constructed in the Mughal style- not just the Taj Mahal, but also the Red Fort in Delhi, the Fort of Agra, Humayans Tomb and a number of other lovely works. The melding of Persian and Indian styles created some of the worlds best-known monuments. This combination of influences can also be seen in the arts, cuisine, gardens, and even in the Urdu language. Through the Mughals, Indo-Persian culture reached an apogee of refinement and beauty. Sources Asher, Catherine B. Sub–Imperial Palaces: Power and Authority in Mughal India. Ars Orientalis 23, 1993.Begley, Wayne E. The Myth of the Taj Mahal and a New Theory of Its Symbolic Meaning. The Art Bulletin, 1979.Chand, Shyam. Book Review: Religious Dimensions of Indian Nationalism: A Study of the RSS by Shamsul Islam, Tribune India, 2006.Faraqui, Munis D. The Princes of the Mughal Empire, 1504–1719. Cambridge University Press, 2012.Foltz, Richard. Cultural Contacts between Central Asia and Mughal India. Central Asiatic Journal, 1998.Haider, Najaf. Norms of Professional Excellence and Good Conduct in Accountancy Manuals of the Mughal Empire. International Review of Social History, 2011.Mukhia, Harbans. The Mughals of India, New Delhi. Wiley-Blackwell, 2004.Schimmel, Annemarie Burzine K. Waghmar. The Great Empire of the Mughals: History, Art and Culture. Reaktion Books, 2004.

Jeff Hancock's analysis speech Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Jeff Hancock's analysis speech - Essay Example He provides different types of evidence to back up his claims such as statistical evidence and personal stories that have a bearing on his speech. His transition from one point to another within the speech was very evident, and this made it possible for the audience to keep up with him throughout the speech; this is because he was able to maintain a logical flow of thought that was not confusing to the audience. Jeff’s introduction was effective in that he was able to capture the audience’s attention through a joke and an interactive approach, by throwing them a challenge in question form. The audience demonstrated their familiarity with the topic by readily participating in the challenge, thus granting the speaker a full ear throughout the speech session. In his conclusion, Jeff was able to summarize his main points as well as reiterate his main idea about the topic of his speech; this conclusion was effective in that, not only did it achieve to signal the end of the s peech, but also it did compel the audience to reflect upon the concluded discussions. The speaker’s delivery of the speech was excellent because he struck as a credible source of information to the audience in a number of ways to build his credibility; Jeff starts by citing well-known ancient scholars thus demonstrating his vast knowledge in the topic. He also goes ahead to present different forms of evidence, in addition to, switching between a number of presentation modes such as question-answer, lecture and LCD; all that demonstrates his level of preparedness and research on the topic to the audience. Throughout the speech, Jeff appears poise, confident and professional because he does not rush through his points in a haphazard manner. The speaker performed excellently on his voice control; his choice of tone and intonation was very appropriate for

The Scottish Parliament Building Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Scottish Parliament Building - Assignment Example Effective time management does not only ensure that the project is not delayed, but also it ensures that benefits from the projects are derived in a timely manner. David et al (2006) argues that creating a proper project plan is an essential aspect that a firm should take into consideration when initiating any project. Nevertheless, some project managers do not realise the value of a project plan particularly in saving time, reducing cost and improving performance. According to Lewis (2006) there are various strategies that are put in place by project managers in order to ensure a project meets the needs of its users, these includes, incremental, interactive, as well as phased approaches. Whichever approach is employed, project managers who are focused at making their projects successful must espouse careful consideration so as to achieve the objectives of their projects. One of the best aspects that managers must emulate in order to attain the goals of the project is to effectively manage their teams. It is significant to note that team members need to be motivated since their role of ensuring timely completion of projects is paramount (Joseph 2003). Some of the major ways of motivating human labour force includes training, salary increment, holidays and promotion. This paper seeks to discuss various aspects that contributed to the success of Scottish Parliament. Major primary elements that will be discussed include proper allocation of resources, appropriate planning of time as well as hiring of skilled labour. Factors that contributed to the success in the construction of Scottish Parliament Proper use of resources Commencement of Scottish Parliament building, that is located east of Edinburgh town, was started in 1999. One of the major aspects that led the construction of Scottish Parliament to be successful was efficient allocation and use of resources from internal sources and external donors. As stipulated by Dardanelli (2005) it is vital for project man agers to ensure effective use of financial resources so as to avoid corruption and misuse of resources which are major causes project failure. Time planning Efficient time planning by the Scottish Parliament project managers highly contributed to the successful completion of Scottish Parliament. As stipulated by Bain (2004) failure by some project managers to appropriately manage their time, is a key issue that leads to delays in the completion of projects. In order to ensure timely completion of the Scottish Parliament, despite the controversies of cost increment and site selection, project managers ensured appropriate scheduling of activities that were concerned in the completion of the parliament building. Balfour & McCrone (2005) argues that notwithstanding the criticisms from various individuals for example Lord Fraser and public reaction, Scottish Parliament building was welcomed by various professionals and architects.   Public inquiry  that aimed at investigating the man agement and the supervision of the entire construction criticised the top management team due to selection of Bovis as the senior manager as well as appointment of non-Scottish architect. Skilled labour force Scottish Parliament was also successful due to experienced labour force. It is imperative to note that efficient managers take into consideration the experience of

Special Needs Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Special Needs Report - Essay Example Solution-focused counseling involves a clear set of beliefs about students and an identifiable set of questioning techniques. The central belief is that it is more productive and effective to focus on students' skills, abilities and resources rather than on their weaknesses or what is going wrong and why. Other important beliefs include the following (Gass and Gillis, 1995): The main skill in solution-focused counseling is the use of effective questioning. Presented below are several types of questions that are illustrative of how a positive focus on solutions, rather than problems, can be achieved with students and others who are 'stuck' (based on Manthei, 1997). It is not unusual for students to begin experiencing positive changes in their difficulties in between the problem being identified and the time when they talk to the teacher about it. These 'pre-counseling improvements' often signal ways in which the student has begun successfully dealing with the problem, even if unwittingly so. If such change has occurred, teachers should explore the reasons for those improvements and identify the helpful factors over which the student has control. The three approaches presented so far, the problem-solving and solution-focused approaches and the application of listening skills in counseling on the run, are ones which teachers can use effectively to deal with the majority of situations in schools, which require counseling. They are also ones which teachers can learn relatively quickly, for example, after reading this book and attending a one-day workshop. However, there are a wide range of other counseling techniques or intervention strategies which can be very useful in the school setting, given the right circumstances. These strategies are more specialized ones, which require more extensive information than can be presented here and so require further reading. Teachers have successfully implemented many of these strategies with little or no additional training. However, ideally, they should obtain training on the strategies from qualified counselors and then only use them in settings in which ongoing guidance from colleagues with experience of using the strategies are available. Brief outlines of a selection of such strategies, with suggestions for further reading, are presented below. More information on each of the strategies and a variety of other strategies which can be used in schools can be found in Thompson and Rudolph (2000) and Vernon (1993). Cognitive therapy This is an approach which is based on the view that the feelings and behavior of students are influenced by their thoughts or beliefs (Hughes, 1988). Therefore, changing their

Impacts of Drug and Substance Abuse of Youths

Impacts of Drug and Substance Abuse of Youths Drug and substance abuse continues to be a major problem worldwide, and in particular, Malawi. It is estimated that there are over 12 million abusers in United Stated of America and 500,000 cocaine users in South Africa (Fabiano Maganga,2002, pp124-127). It is a common knowledge that most of the drug and substance abusers are youth and young adults, i.e. the most productive age groups. Most teenagers begin to experiment with substances at an early age which may lead to drug and substance dependence or addiction. This may occur through the progression from experimentation with drugs/ substances to their occasional use and they lead them to the development of tolerance and physical dependence (Malunda Mpinganjira, 2009, p.147). The most common drug in Malawi is cannabis, also called hemp or chamba and the smoking of hemp is increasing rapidly, particularly among young people. Almost every school has some boys and girls who smoke chamba indicating that the drug is very easy to obtain (Fabiano Maganga, 2002, pp.124-125). Risk factors that predispose people to drug/substance abuse are lack of mental or emotional resources against stress, a low tolerance for frustration, and the need for immediate relief of tension or distress (Malunda Mpinganjira, 2009, p. 147). According to Arterburn Burns (1989, pp42-46), biological predisposition, peer pressure, parental attitudes and parenting style are also some of the factors which lead adolescents to indulge in such malpractices. The EAM (1998, p.27), says lack of recreational facilities for the youth makes them to find other forms of recreation such as drugs and drinks. Drug and substance abuse among the youth is associated with a broad range of high risk behaviors. This type of behavior can have profound health, economic and social consequences such deviant behaviors, unprotected sexual intercourse, interpersonal violence, destruction of property and perform poorly in the studies (Malunda Mpinganjira, 2009, p.147). According to Kabwila (2000, p.19), Many cases of indiscipline in schools, homes, sports and entertainment places are as a result of abusing drugs, alcohol, and other substances. Peschke (1993, p.249) said; Death caused by smoking far exceed the death rate from Aids and traffic accidents. The excessive drinking of alcohol is not illegal but it can have serious effects on both the individual and society. Alcoholism is the/ number one socio- medical problem. Alcohol makes a person irresponsible and much more likely to engage in unprotected sex, therefore, a factor in the spread of HIV/AIDS. It can also lead to illness, particularly diseases of the liver (FabianoMaganga, 2002, p.125). Therefore if deaths caused by smoking exceed the death rate from Aids and traffic accidents it is important to analyze the causes and effects of drug and substance abuse among the youths so as to draw out measures of how to help them. According to Malunda Mpinganjira (2009, p.148), drug and substance abuse is worsened by complex socio-economic challenges such as unemployment, poverty and crime in general. Most of the youth that are involved in drug and substance abuse are led into a life of crime. Police records reveal that 90% of the criminals arrested in this country are between the ages of 17 and 30 years of age (Dzonzi, EAM, 1998, p.88). Therefore it is of great importance to examine possible factors related to the abuse of drugs and substances among the youths so as to draw out measures of how to help them. Background information Mkanda Zone is one of the areas affected by drug and substance abuse. It is a Trading center, North of Mchinji District which borders with Zambia. A lot of businesses are being carried out in this area; shops, dealers, and local businesses. Many adolescents especially school going age in this area are engaged in drug, substance as well as alcoholism. Drug and substance abuse is linked to other kinds of irresponsible behavior such as unprotected sex or violence. Such risky behaviors may lead to economic, social, and health problems as individuals as well as nation. For example, some youth participate in deviant peer groups, unprotected sexual intercourse, interpersonal violence, destruction of property and others. Secondary schools are facing a lot of problems because of students who are involved in substance abuse, as a result there are many indiscipline cases happening at school. Some of the students who abuse drugs and substances will not perform well in their studies or they will just drop out of school leading to high number of illiterate people. Adolescents use drugs and substances for various reasons such as peer group pressure, family problems, developmental stage, stress and relief, availability and others (Mueller, 1999, p.317). For a country to develop it needs its young people to become educated, to work hard and become active and responsible citizens. No matter what, the issue of drug and substance abuse remain a major problem among the children and teenagers. Parents and educators should be aware of the extent of drug and substance abuse and its effects. It is therefore important to determine the reasons and nature of substances abuse in youth in Mkanda area in order to be able to suggest measures which could be applied to prevent and control the substance abuse problem. Statement of the problem The youth today are more rebellious, more troubled emotionally, more confused sexually, less idealistic, more critical of values and standards of adult culture and more disengaged from them (Dzonzi, EAM, 1998, P.86). One of the major critical decisions that Malawian youth comes face to face with is on the use of drugs and alcohol. According to Kabwila (2000,p.19), Many cases of indiscipline in schools, homes, sports, and entertainment places are as a result of abusing drugs, alcohol and other substances. It has been said that almost every school has some boys and girls who smoke chamba (Fabiano Maganga, 2002, p.124). Most of the youth that are involved in drug and substance abuse are led to a life of crime. Police records reveal that 90% of the criminal arrested in this country are between the age of 17 and 30 years of age. These crimes are committed daily in Malawi by young people most of them as a result of direct consequence o involvement in drug and alcohol abuse (Dzonzi, EAM, 1998, p.88). When it comes to the subject of drugs and substance abuse, parents, teachers, pastors, police officers, politicians feel out of their depths, understandably so because there is a lot of confusion and inaccurate information around, this is made worse by some highly charged and emotive news stories on the subject (EAM, 1998, p.86). In light of the above, the main research question of the study; Why do most of the youth use substance? From the major research question, the following are some of sub questions: Which substances are used by most of the youth? What are the effects of drug and alcohol abuse on education? Which strategies can be developed to prevent substance abuse among youth? Purpose of the study The major aim of this research was to carry out an investigation why most of the youth nowadays are engaged in drug and substance abuse and even alcoholism in selected secondary schools in Mkanda area. Even though such lessons are taught from their earliest ages (primary school), the syndrome seems to be on an increase. The following were the specific objectives of the study: Investigate reasons why most of the youth in Mkanda area are involved in drug and alcohol abuse. An explanation of the mostly abused drug among the youth in secondary schools in Mkanda area. Identify the effects of being involved in drug and alcohol abuse on their education. Identify the strategies to prevent drug and substance abuse among the youth Significance of study Today, drug and substance abuse continues to grow at rising rates among children and the youths. Young people today are exposed to drugs earlier than before. The study on this topic will be of great importance to the nation of Malawi. Firstly, the findings of this study will be used to educate the youths and their parents on drug and substance abuse in Mkanda area and other areas in Malawi. Not only will the findings of this research educate the youths and their parents but also will help educators and other professionals involved in youth ministries to understand the prevalence of youth drug and substance use and abuse in order to develop effective evidence-based strategies and policies which will be used to control the problem of drug and substance abuse. Surely, creating a drug free society reduces consequences that may arise and produce responsible citizens. Hypotheses Drug and substance abuse is influenced by biological and psychological factors. The researcher in this research paper has the following hypotheses: Locally availability of such substances at lowest prices. Lack of other entertainments. Lack of role model. Limitations This study will be conducted in few schools due to lack of time. Responded might not be willing to complete the questionnaires in which will make the researcher some delays to compile the results. Some respondents will not be free to express the truth from the matter fearing that they are going to be arrested since it is a sensitive issue. Money for travelling to gather information is also an issue to be considered. Time is also limited to carry out this research effectively. Language (English) will also be a problem to those with low levels of education. Delimitations The researcher will not disclose names of those who indulge themselves in the business of selling these illegal drugs and those who are involved in the smoking Indian hemp. The researcher will also not give some money to those who will be involved in answering questionnaires. Definitions of terms and Acronyms Adolescent: The developmental transition between childhood and adulthood. Drug: A substance which has a physical effect on human beings. EAM: Evangelical Association of Malawi HHHIV/AIDS: Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome Substance: Any kind of matter . Substance Abuse: Refers to the use of substances for purposes other than what they are intended for or in excess. Youth: Any person aged in the range of 15-24 years old. CHAPTER 2:  REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This chapter reviews the related scientific literature. The chapter is divided into five sections. The first section presents an overview of types of drugs and substances in general. The second section deals with the commonly abused drugs in Malawi. The third section contains some of misconceptions associated drug and substance abuse mostly among the youths. The fourth section is concerned the reasons why most people indulge themselves in drug and substance abuse. The next section deals with the effects of drug and substance abuse on an individual. Types of drugs and substances Drugs come in various forms and can be taken in numerous ways. Some are legal and others are not (access. Ewu.edu/à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦education/substance-use-and-abuse/drug-facts.xml). Stimulants. Stimulants are drugs which speed up the bodys nervous system and create a feeling of energy. They are also called uppers because of their ability to make you feel at awake. Stimulants have the opposite effects of depressants. Constant use of stimulants can have very negative effects on the user such as compulsive drugs seeking behavior, anxiety, confusion and insomnia. Examples of such drugs are cocaine, methamphetamines/ amphetamines, Ritalin, caffeine and nicotine (Mueller, 1999, p.372). Depressants. These are drugs which sedate and slow down the activity of the central nervous system. Teens who want to relax or reduce their level of anxiety will often turn to depressants. Many teens will use stronger and more toxic doses in order to enter into the state of euphoria and excitement before the sedating power of the drug takes effect. (Mueller, 1999, p.316). Mueller says these depressants are highly addictive, and long-term users develop physical and psychological dependence on these drugs. Commonly Abused Drugs in Malawi According to Kabwila, (2000, pp.19-20), the term drug refer to a medicated substance taken orally or through injection in order to relieve pain or suffering. Drug and substance abuse refers to the use of drugs and substances for purposes other than what they are intended for or in excess. Continuous use of these drugs leads to addiction. Addiction is defined as a state of periodic or chronic intoxication produced by the repeated consumption of a drug and involves tolerance, psychological dependence, usually physical dependence, and an overwhelming compulsion to continue using the drug which detrimentally affects both the individual and society (Wilkerson, 1971, p.87). In Malawi, the mostly abused drugs are cannabis, mandrax, cocaine, valium, petrol, alcohol and tobacco (MIE, 2011, p.88). Cannabis is locally known as chamba, and tobacco (cigarettes). Alcohol can be traditional beverages such as chibuku and kachasu, and imported alcoholic drinks like beer (Bisika, 2004, p.29). According to Bisika, Malawi has been used as a transit route for other drugs like mandrax, heroin and cocaine (p.29). The main primary drug of abuse among students is cannabis (79.3%) followed by alcohol (19.3%). The predominant secondary drug of abuse is alcohol (30.4%) and cannabis (20%). The commonest method of use for the primary drug of abuse is smoking (77%) followed by drinking (23%) (Bisika et al, 2004, pp53-54). Cannabis. The cannabis plant or hemp is the source of marijuana (chamba), and THC. The commonly used form of cannabis is the dried leaves, buds, and stems of the plant (Mueller, 1999, p.315). Teenagers refer to marijuana as Mary Jane, pot, grass, or weed. Cannabis leaves are prepared and used in the following ways: Prepared like tea and swallowed. Baked into cakes or cookies and eaten. Snuffed like tobacco and inhaled. Smoked like cigarettes-inhaled. Smoked in pipes. Cooked as relish. In Malawi, cannabis is grown widely throughout the country and the production is about 399.3 hectares according to the Cannabis Survey which was commissioned by the Ministry of Home Affairs in 2003 (Bisika, 2004,p.31). Bisika et al. found that the main commercial growing areas of cannabis are Nkhatabay, Mzimba, Kasungu, Nkhotakota, and Ntchisi. Other districts like Dedza, Ntcheu, Chitipa, and Zomba grow in small scale. Bisika came up with hospital records of cannabis related admission patients from 1995 to 2003. Records shows that in 1995, there were 205 patients at Zomba Mental Hospital (the only government-institution that caters for mentally ill patients), but in 2003, the number raised up to 269. According to a psychiatric nurse at Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital, findings shows that the most common abused drug in Malawi seems to be cannabis (p.30). Bisika further found that police records shows that there are many cases of cannabis trafficting. Narcotics. These are drugs which depress the central nervous system and at the same time relieve pain such as pain killers like panado. Alcohol. In Malawi, alcohol is consumed by the general public and is not as stigmatized as cannabis. According to Arterburn Burns (1989, p.64-67), alcohol is a food because it has calories, is a drug because it alters moods, and is a poison because in large quantities its toxic. The alcoholic is any person who consumes so much alcohol that he or she becomes addicted to the chemical. Braathen (2008, pp.30-31), listed several types of alcohol. Carlsberg is referred to any bottled beer manufactured by Carlsberg Breweries in Malawi such as green, brown, stout and special. Chibuku is another alcoholic product from Chibuku products Malawi Limited made from maize porridge which is much cheaper than Carlsberg beer. Kachasu is another type of alcoholic beverage, made from maize bran mixed with sugar and water and is left for some days to ferment and then is brewed. Kachasu is a strong spirit brewed by local women. Misconceptions Associated with Drug and Substance Abuse Some people indulge in such practice because of the misled information they get from friends which is not true (Kabwila, 2000, p.53). The following are some of misconceptions people have in their mind: Drug and substances give them energy to do work Assist them to ease their tension and stress Relieve their frustrations Make them feel high or enjoy themselves Give them pleasure and leisure Make them more intelligent Give then to do courage to do work Make them to forget their problems. In addition to the above misconceptions, there are also some traditional beliefs in Malawi that encourage the use of cannabis (chamba). Bisika et al. quoted the SENDU report for 2002 reported that some mothers use cannabis to treat measles (2004, p.32). Furthermore cannabis will give them confidence in their relationship with the opposites sex while some think that cannabis can improve their sexual potency. Why Teenagers Abuse Drug and Substances Alcohol, tobacco illicit drugs such as marijuana (chamba) and steroids are some of the most abused drugs and substances (Malunda and Mpinganjira, 2009, p.15). Peschke (1993) came up with some of the causes for one to be indulged in drug and substance abuse like that some seeks the pleasure (p.253). Life is boring so many teenagers find drugs and substances, alcohol to be an exciting form of recreation that is cheap, easy, and fun to do with a group of friend. (Mueller, 1999, p.317). Curiosity and experimentation. Many children will satisfy their curiosity about unknown world of tobacco, alcohol, and drugs by trying them to find out just what smoking, drinking and doing drugs are like (Mueller, 1999, p.316). Teens in their developmental stages like to discover what is good for them. Some young people are always curious about something that is mysterious, adventurous, dangerous, and illegal (Wilkerson, 1971, p.90). Although curiosity is given an excuse for having started a habit, it is often later found out that some character defect perpetuated the drug taking. Peer pressure. The strongest motivator for a young person is the desire for acceptance by peers (ArterburnBurns, 1989, p.43). Young people indulge in such malpractice because of peer pressure. With the desire to fit in and be accepted and loved, children and teens who feel insecure and unloved at home give in the pressure. (Mueller, 1999, p.317). These are also called the social addict or the social give-ins; young people who take drugs because it is the sociable thing to do- everyone is doing it. (Wilkerson, 1971, p.91). Youth think that taking drugs is a prerequisite for belonging to some groups. Most teenagers often begin using and abusing drugs and substances as a result of peer pressure. Lack of adequate family support, failure of parental supervision and excess unsupervised free time also contribute to increased drug/substance use and abuse among teenagers.(Malunda and Mpinganjira, 2009, p.17). Availability. Children and teens find drugs and alcohol easy to get. Even though its illegal to buy cigarettes until the age of eighteen, more students are reported buying cigarettes without asked for proof of age. But the most unbelievable source of alcohol for many teenagers in their parents. ( Mueller, 1999,p.317). Some of the reasons why teenagers are involved drug and substance abuse advertising. Advertisements are especially effective as smoking and drinking recruiters. Tobacco industries and Breweries industries promote their products.(Mueller, 1999, p.318). Teens are fair game for advertising messages that suggest that drinking and smoking lead to maturity, sophistication, beauty, fun and acceptance. Biological Predisposition. Genetic predisposition plays a big role in siblings to chemical dependency. Children from such families whereby both parents are alcoholics, the risks is even higher. Reports from drug and alcohol center shows that usually 50% of the patients come from families where a parent is an alcoholic (ArterburnBurns, 1989, p.43). It is increasingly clear that alcoholism, or the potential for addiction, is passed father to son and from mother to daughter not because of bad home environments, but because of family inheritance pattern. (p.44). Life Crisis. Family problems are another factor for drug and substance abuse for teens. Children who come from homes where there is divorce, separation, an absent parent, discord, marital conflict, unreasonable pressure/expectations, poor communication, abuse or alcoholism are more likely to abuse drugs and alcohol. Escapers. These are young people seeking to escape from boredom, responsibility, frustration and anxiety.(Wilkerson, 1971, p.91). The life a normal teenager is filled with all kinds of stresses so drug and alcohol often becomes coping mechanisms for teens that have no other way to grow constructively through adolescence. ( Mueller,1999,p.318). Mueller also says that todays pop-culture icons and role models send pro-substance abuse messages through their lyrics, videos and lifestyle, movies, TV, and even fashions. Some teens want to look grown-up. When teens realize they arent children anymore, they dont want to look like children, so they will make an extra effort to look older than they really are. (Mueller, 1999, p.318). Mueller also says that todays pop-culture icons and role models send pro-substance abuse messages through their lyrics, videos and lifestyle, movies, TV, and even fashions. Effects of drug and substance on individual Drug and substance abuse have carries many risks on individual, family as well as the nation at large. Below are some of the abused drugs and substances along with their effects. Alcohol. Medical evidence shows that chronic alcohol abuse leads to severe brain damage which also leads to insanity. Alcohol also causes liver disease called Cirrhosis- hardening of the liver which prevents the free flow of blood causing the liver not to function properly because of many toxins that remain in the blood leading to severe brain damage (Dzonzi, 2004, p.86). Fabiano and Maganga ( 2002, p.125) says Alcohol makes a person irresponsible and much more likely to engage in unprotected sex, therefore high risks of spreading sexually transmitted diseases (STIs) such as HIV/AIDS. Furthermore, alcohol robs peoples money instead of buying basic needs such as food, clothes and good housing; they spend the money on alcohol. The World Book Encyclopedia (1994, p.362), says alcohol can damage the liver, brain and heart, some users lose interest in school or work or have difficulty meeting the responsibilities of a job or family. Fabiano and Maganga(2002,p.124), says alcohol affects a persons ability to concentrate and heavy drinking. Cannabis (marijuana,hashish and THC). The cannabis plant or hemp is the source of marijuana, hashish and THC (tetrahydrocannabinal). According to Mueller (1999, p.315), short-term effects of cannabis include increased heart and respiratory rate, reddening of eyes and sleepiness. Continued use of cannabis leads to more respiratory problems, lung cancer, loss of energy, confused thinking, slow reactions, impaired memory and apathy. Users of cannabis are likely to be violent and to commit crimes and continued use of hemp lead to mental illness. (FabianoMaganga, 2002, p.125). Another effect of hemp is that the mood-altering chemical THC affects hormones in men and causes a temporary loss of fertility (ArterburnBurns, 1989, p.76). Tobacco. Long-term smoking of tobacco leads to cancer, heart diseases and respiratory diseases. Also tobacco smoke is one of the contributing agents to pollution of air (Dzonzi, 2004, p.87). Other drugs (mandrax, cocaine and heroin). These drugs are more likely than hemp to cause mental illness, infertility, impotence, suicide or death from an overdose (Fabiano Maganga 2004, p.126). The World Book Encyclopedia (1994, p.362), says alcohol can damage the liver, brain and heart, some users lose interest in school or work or have difficulty meeting the responsibilities of a job or family. REFERENCES Access. Ewu.edu/à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..education/substance-use-and-abuse/drug-facts.xml. Arterburn, Stephen Burns, Jim (1989). Drug-Proof Your Kids; A Prevention Guide An Intervention Plan. Pomona, California. Bisika,Thomas et al.(2004). Drug Abuse and HIV/AIDS in Malawi; Results from a Rapid Situation Assessment. Centre for Social Research, University of Malawi. Braathen, Stine H (2008). Substance Use and Abuse and its Implications in a Malawian Context- Pilot Project 1. SINTEF Health Report; Oslo, Norway. Dzonzi,Lot(1998). Evangelical Association of Malawi. Lilongwe, Malawi. Fabiano, Margaret Maganga, John (2002). Malawi Secondary Social and Development Studies. Macmillan, Malawi. Kabwila, V.P.(2000). Junior Secondary Population and Sexual Health Education in Social Studies. Malawi Institute of Education; Zomba, Malawi. Malunda, Henry Mpinganjira, Mercy (2009). Jhango, Social and Development Studies Book 4. Jhango Publishing Company, Blantyre. Malawi Institute of Education (2011). Life Skills and Sexual and Reproduction Health for HIV and AIDS Education for Primary School in Malawi; A Training Manual, Domasi, Zomba. Mueller, Walt (1998). Understanding Todays Youth Culture. Wheaton, Illinois. Peschke, Karl. (1993). Christian Ethics: Moral Theology in the Light of Vatican II. New Delhi, India. Wilderson, David and Don (1971). The Untapped Generation. Zondervan Publishing House; Grand Rapids, Michigan.

The Historical and Colonial Context of Brian Friel’s Translations Essay

The Historical and Colonial Context of Brian Friel’s Translations Regarded by many as Brian Friel’s theatrical masterpiece, Seamus Deane described Translations as â€Å"a sequence of events in history which are transformed by his writing into a parable of events in the present day† (Introduction 22). The play was first produced in Derry in 1980. It was the first production by Field Day, a cultural arts group founded by Friel and the actor Stephen Rea, and associated with Deane, Seamus Heaney and Tom Paulin. As Deane asserts, the play is in many respects an intelligent and enlightening metaphor for the situation in Northern Ireland. The aims of raising cultural awareness and dispelling socio-political apathy in the North were central to the objectives of the Field Day group. However, despite Friel’s concerns with contemporary Ireland, the play is also an enchanting fictive account of the Irish experience of British colonialism. My aim in this page is to firmly place Translations within its historical context, in order to understand the representation of colonialism in the play and to facilitate further post-colonial readings. Translations may be located both temporally and spatially to a fixed point in Irish history. The characters hail from Baile Beag, renamed with the anglicised title of Ballybeg. The action of the play occurs over a number of days towards the end of August 1833. Before delving into the play it is clear, from these most general of points, that the mise-en-scene of Translations is a period of great significance in the colonial relationship between Ireland and England. The lifetime of Hugh and Jimmy Jack, the sixty years or so running up to 1833, bore witness to many important events in the metamorphosis of Ireland from a rural Gaelic society to a modern colonial nation. To go back another seven decades, in 1704 penal laws were enacted â€Å"which decreed that a Catholic could not hold any office of state, nor stand for Parliament, vote, join the army or navy, practise at the bar nor....buy land† (Kee Ireland: A History 54). Thus, by 1778 a mere five per cent of the land of Ireland was owned by Catholics. The Irish people (most notably Catholics, though Protestants also) such as those portrayed in Translations suffered severe discrimination, poverty and hardship. The French Revolution of 1789 jolted Irish political thinking into a new fr... ... to speak English and every subject will be taught through English (396). Maire’s desire, at the opening of the play, to speak English shall soon be enforced by law throughout the National Schools in Ireland. Where Dan O’Connell and Maire both assumed the use of English would allow progress towards their respective national and personal dreams, Hugh believes that English was simply for â€Å"commerce† but that it â€Å"couldn’t really express us (the Irish)† (418). He realised that the use of Gaelic, of remaining true to their own traditions was a method of resisting colonialism, â€Å"our only method of replying to .... inevitabilities† (418). Perhaps the most ironic passage in the play appears during a conversation between Yolland and Hugh. Hugh indulges himself the smiling position of condescending to the young soldier, dismissing William Wordsworth (and by implication English Literature): Wordsworth?.... No I’m afraid we’re not familiar with your literature, Lieutenant. .... We tend to overlook your island (417). Poignantly, within a relatively short period of time the poetry of Wordsworth, and of the English canon, would be read and recited by the majority of children in Ireland.

Education Between Indigenous and Non- Indigenous Australians. Essay

Discuss if and how the area of education can contribute to achieve relationships between Indigenous and non- Indigenous Australians. Education is among the most important factors in achieving relationships between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. Through the incorporation of Indigenous Education in all schools, Australian children will have every opportunity to learn and understand Aboriginal issues and history, which will help eliminate naive and stereotypical perceptions of Aboriginal Australians in the future. For relationships between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians to become a true reality a quality Aboriginal Education curriculum must be developed within Australian schools through the National Curriculum that is to be implemented in 2012. Such a curriculum must promote reconciliation, which would mean giving all students the opportunity to develope and sustain relationships between Indigenous and non Australians on a mutual and respectful basis (Reconciliation Australia, 2005-2011). Through quality education, relationships can one day be achieved, with both Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians working together cooperatively, to bridge the social and financial gaps that exist between the two. Education is paramount to this and will help to serve the best interest for all Australians. To be successful in building relationships, it is important for all to gain knowledge and understanding of the history of Indigenous Australians and their culture. Racism and misrepresentations are often bred by ignorance, yet with the right education, such attitudes can indeed be altered. For a quality curriculum to be successfully delivered in Australian schools, tertiary institutions must continue to focus on the education of future teachers in the field of Aboriginal Education. Mick Dodson stated that: ‘If like me, you believe education is the principle pathway to reconciliation, you need to act on that belief’ (Dodson, Reconciliation Australia, 2005-2011), meaning that education is the most important means of achieving relationships amongst Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. Therefore, it is crucial to include Aboriginal Education in all Australian schools, as it is such a significant part of Australia’s history as well as its present (Hunter & Schwab, Practical reconciliation and recent trends in Indigenous education, 2004). Many non-Indigenous people’s perceptions of Indigenous Australians are somewhat negative due to the fact that they have never truly been educated about Aboriginal history, issues and affairs. Such attitudes, which are generally bred from ignorance rather than experience, are able to be changed through education. If all children are educated about Aboriginal history and culture, they will grow up with positive perceptions of Indigenous Australians that they will be able to pass on to future generations. However, for relationships to become a reality there needs to be some substantial evidence of agreement in the area of education between Indigenous and non Indigenous Australians (Hunter & Schwab, 2004). This can be achieved through the National Curriculum, which is to be implemented throughout Australian schools in 2012, where Aboriginal perspectives will hopefully make up a significant part. The Australian Curriculum and Assessment Reporting Authority has acknowledged the importance of relationships and is currently writing Indigenous perspectives into the national curriculum ‘to make sure that all Australians have the chance to learn about, understand and respect the history and culture of Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders’ (Greenfield & Harrison, Relationship To Place). It is of critical importance that Indigenous Australians continue to be involved in the development of an Aboriginal Education curriculum. Since 1982, Indigenous Australians have been active in the development of the NSW Department of Education Aboriginal Education Policy. The rationale for creating this policy was originally for people to recognise the significance in including Aboriginal Education into the school curriculum (Reconciliation, 2006). The policy was created in the hope that Indigenous Australians could share accurate knowledge and understandings with non-Indigenous Australians about their culture and history in contrast to the largely ignorant misunderstandings that have long been perceived (Reconciliation, 2006). Another important goal of the policy was to eliminate stereotypical assumptions, which often resulted in racist attitudes and behaviour by those who have not been properly educated or do not have a sound understanding of Aboriginal culture. Similar to the NSW Aboriginal Education Policy is The Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians, which stresses the importance for every Australian student to ‘appreciate and recognize the significance of Indigenous cultures and enhance the knowledge, skills and understanding to contribute to, and gain from, relationships between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians’ (Greenfield & Harrison, Relationship To Place). Through persistence, continued development and the implementation into all Australian schools, a uniform Aboriginal Education curriculum that is developed with the assistance of Indigenous Australians can only work to assist in the achievement of relationships in this country. Those that already exist, such as the NSW Aboriginal Education Policy and the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians, can be used as a foundation for the further development of a successful, Australia-wide Aboriginal Education curriculum. In order for education to aid the process of relationships in Australia, a quality Aboriginal Education curriculum must be mandatory in all Australian schools. Such a curriculum would therefore need to be widely understood and embraced by both current and future educators. In order for this to become a reality, teacher training courses must enable all educators to understand that Australia has a significant Aboriginal history and Aboriginal view points on social, cultural and historical matters (Reconciliation, 2006). To be successful in achieving relationships between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians, it is important when teaching Indigenous studies to be able to understand and acknowledge reconciliation as a step into political restoration (Reconciliation, 2006). Delivering all Australian students an Aboriginal Education curriculum that incorporates this is an important way to gain a common understanding between Indigenous and non Indigenous people. A way to help achieve relationships is to include accurate and core information into Indigenous studies subjects, for student teachers involved in education courses (Reconciliation, 2006). A curriculum that incorporates these things would play a significant part in eliminating negative perceptions through properly educating non-Indigenous Australians about Indigenous Australians, their history and their current social and cultural view points. Through further educating our educators in Aboriginal history, culture and affairs, the message of reconciliation has the opportunity to become more widespread. Therefore, there is a need for educators to teach Aboriginal Education, including at a tertiary level because in the past, Australian schools and institutions have largely ignored Aboriginal studies (Teaching the Teachers Aboriginal Studies, 2005, p. 14). Over many years there have been government reports given to Australian teacher education institutions to include compulsory Indigenous Studies courses for teachers to assist in the cause for reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people and to concentrate on Aboriginal educational disadvantage (Craven, 1998, Is the Dawn breaking?). Indigenous studies are vitally important for pre-service teachers to be taught, and learn how to teach, in order for this country to one day achieve reconciliation (Reconciliation, 2006). It has only been recently that changes in Australian teacher education institutions have provided student teachers with the opportunity to carry out Indigenous studies during their education courses (Teaching the Teachers Aboriginal Studies, 2005, p. 15). Within the 36 Australian tertiary institutions, there are 54 teacher education programs. It has been estimated that 48 percent of these include mandatory units of Indigenous studies. This is a massive increase considering that in 1992, there was no more than one university in Australia that made the topic of Indigenous studies mandatory for pre service teachers (Craven, 1998). However, this figure needs to be 100 percent in order for all future educators to suitably pass on their knowledge of Indigenous culture and history to their future students and do their part to promote reconciliation. In order to achieve relationships between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians, education must be a major focus. The delivery of a quality Aboriginal Education curriculum that has been developed with significant input from Indigenous Australians would provide Australian students with the opportunity to gain a true understanding of Aboriginal history and culture. This would aid the process of reconciliation substantially, as it would help to eliminate some of the preconceived misconceptions that some non-Indigenous Australians have towards Indigenous people and their culture. A quality curriculum for all Australian students would leave little room for ignorance and false judgements, as it would be providing them with truthful, accurate information, which would lay the foundation for reconciliation. Through educating our youth, relationships have a strong chance of becoming a reality because knowledge can be passed on through future generations. It is of great importance that both current and future educators become more and more exposed to teaching Aboriginal Education if relationships are to become a reality in Australia. References Author unknown, (2005-2011), Reconciliation Australia: Resources, http://www.reconciliation. org. au/home/resources, Viewed on 17/10/11 Mooney, J & Craven, R. G, (2006), Reconciliation: Why we need to teach Teacher’s to teach Aboriginal Studies to all Australian students, University of Western Sydney, , Viewed on 17/10/11 Craven, R. G, (2002),Is the Dawn Breaking? The First Empirical Investigations of the Impact of Mandatory Aboriginal Studies Teacher Education Courses on Teachers’ Self-concepts and Other Desirable Outcomes, University of Western Sydney, , Viewed on 17/10/2011 Dodson, M, (2005-2011), Reconciliation Australia: Mick Dodson speaks at the National Press Club, < http://www.reconciliation. org. au/home/latest/mick-dodson-speaks-at-the-national-press-club > Viewed on 19/10/11 Greenfield, M & Harrison, N, (date unknown), Relationship to place: Positioning aboriginal knowledge and perspectives in classroom pedagogies , Viewed on 18/10/11 Hunter, B. H. & Schwab, R. G. (2004), Practical reconciliation and recent trends in Indigenous education, The Australian National University , Viewed on 19/10/11 Author unknown, (2005), Teaching the Teachers Aboriginal Studies: Impact on Teaching, Australian Department of Education, Science and Training , p. 14 and 15, Viewed on 18/10/2011.

Refugee Blues †W.H. Auden Essay

Poet – Wynstan Hugh Auden, born as a doctor’s son in February 1907 in York, United Kingdom, counts as one of the greatest English poets of the twentieth century. Theme – abuse of human rights experienced not only by German Jews but by other Jews and by refugees anywhere. Structure – The poem contains twelve stanzas of three lines each. The first and second line of each stanza rhyme. The two rhyming lines of each stanza tell the story, while the third line contains a refrain (like a chorus) that develops the theme of the poem. Analysis – The use of the word blues also reinforces the musical theme of the poem as the sub-genre of jazz – this style of music was created by the slaves in slave communities in the Southern States of the USA. The origin and the modern meaning of this word tie in with the two purposes of the poem. The repeated use of â€Å"my dear† suggests that the couple are married, but doesn’t give a clue as to whether it is the husband or wife speaking. The first stanza notes that the city they have fled to is full of people, both rich and poor, yet there is no space for them. With the use of word such as â€Å"souls† it suggest something valuable or holy about each and every one of the people within the city, it also implies that they are all the same. The tree is an interesting symbol in the next stanza. The tree can go through nature’s cycle but can. However, this is contrasted with man-made documents that, once lost, can never be recovered: ‘Old passports can’t do that, my dear’.

Web Design for Selling Self

Web Design for Selling Self Introduction This is a report about a Web site design for selling self-published books. The site provides various books in various aspects of healthy living. Users can download the e-book at a fee.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Web Design for Selling Self-Published Books specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Many writers have resorted to self-publishing and there is a growing demand for an online business to sell such books. Selling digital books on the Web site has become profitable because of the large market throughout the world and a lack of physical inventory. The owner also has an option of conducting the business from any part of the world with the Internet connection. The e-books shall be useful to users and affect their living habits. Goal Definition The aim of this project is to create a Web site for selling self-published books that will attract younger generations who have interests in various topics ab out. The Web site should have more than 500 visitors in a month. Requirements The need to sale self-published books has increased with the development and accessibility of the Internet technologies. The Web site shall use effective payment options that are available in various parts of the world than what other businesses offer. The Web site shall have the following requirements in order to ensure professional services to visitors and users (Eccher 30).Advertising Looking for assessment on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The visitor can start by browsing the available e-books on the subject of interest. The site may also suggest other books of interest for the visitor. Visitors who are members of the Web site can log in their accounts by using their user name and password. New users can register new accounts at the Web site at no cost. However, users who wish not to register may explore the avail able e-books, but they cannot purchase any item from the site. Users who have logged into their accounts can place their orders by specifying the required e-books, the number of copies needed and other important details, and then adding them to the cart. The system shall verify order details and provide the customer with the amount to pay for the items. In case of any challenge, the system instructs the user to change some of the details. The customer may repeat the process until no more challenges can be noticed. The system shall also verify that the customer has placed the right order, check the quality of the e-book. The customer will also specify the format of the e-book and the type of file (such as PDF, html, rtf,.doc etc). The customer may then execute the payment of the items by entering the appropriate payment details. The system shall support different options lack credit cards, VISA, PayPal, and other e-pay solutions. Prices of all items shall be in the US dollar equivale nt. The system must verify all payment details and establish the user’s identity in order to protect customers. Once the customer has executed the payment, he or she will receive a confirmation message through notification border in the account, personal e-mail, and phone number. In addition, the system sends the message to the department to effect the transaction.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Web Design for Selling Self-Published Books specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More After this process, the system then sends the e-book to the customer provided e-mail for download or the customer can get the e-book in the account he or she opened with the company. Before the transaction is complete, users also have a chance to terminate the transaction. Visitor The system shall also provide opportunities for customers to provide their feedback and suggestions on how to improve services, the Web site, and any other ar ea of interest to them. Fig. 1: Use case diagram The use case diagram represents the stages of making the online e-book transactions. It shows the scope of the Web site, functional areas, and possible interactions between the visitors and the Web site (Ambler 1). The major players in these processes are: Customer: the customer or the visitor is the major player in this process. The company provides opportunities for a customer in another location to purchase the book via the online method. Administrator: the administrator can control the entire process of the customer’s interaction with the system. He also takes the role of the system operator and supports the entire process involved in e-book purchase. The administrator verifies all the details and interacts with the customer during the purchase process.Advertising Looking for assessment on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Database server: the database server stores the members’ identities and other details. It is also important during the registration of a new member. Web server: the Web server contains details of e-books, costs, shopping cart, address, comment areas, rating, e-mail addresses, and other important aspects of the Web site. Users initiate the process by logging on to the system. On the other hand, new visitors can register and become a member. The customer can browse the available books, review their contents, and choose the suitable book. In addition, the customer can review the book, rate, and add his or her comments. The customer selects the e-book of interest and adds it to the cart. In case of any challenge, the customer can make changes to the order. He can see costs of the item, which the system sends to the administrator. The customer can then initiate payment by using any of the supported methods. After verification procedures and payment, the administrator can confirm t he payment and send the e-book to the customer. The customer may get the book in his account with the company or in his personal e-mail account. Fig. 2: Online e-book purchasing processes Site Plan Logical Structure The logical structure has assumed a simple form structure (Booch, Rumbaugh and Jacobson 82). However, this structure may change as the design may acquire new features. The site hierarchy has the entire common navigational links. In addition, topical links are also a part of the structure. However, the site avoids complex design to enhance usability and navigation. Visitors can navigate the site freely and move from one content to another. For instance, users can skip ‘About Us’ and transcend to ‘Product’ without passing through other areas. The site plan is clear, simple, and concrete. Thus, it is simple for visitors to navigate from one menu to another without experiences challenges of being lost. Design Prototype The design is interactive to allow the Web site to communicate the entire structure, contents, and functionality with other part is a manner provides ease of modification, usage, and merging without technical challenges. This model shows clickable elements of HTML sections, which users can navigate while in the site. The design shall also have the necessary feel, images, and typography that match an e-book Web site. The page has footer and header. At the Home page, there are also options for Register for new visitors or Member Log for existing users. At the Footer, there are buttons with links about Contact Us, Social media connection, Pricing, Help, and FAQ. The Contact Us link leads the customer to the company’s e-mail address and phone number and physical location. Users have the option of using any of the methods. Under the Pricing tab, customer can view each item with its price tag. In case a customer has challenges, there is a link for help of FAQs. Whenever the user clicks on the Register button, the registration page shall pop up with all the fields for personal detail requirements and other related information. The process is linear to allow users to follow a simple process of registration. Users must enter their last names, first names, e-mail address, zip (if applicable), phone number, physical address, and country. The user must then enter the password and confirm it by retyping the same password. In case of any error, the system will highlight the section with the problem, and the users can make the required changes. After this process, users can then click the button ‘finish registration’. It will show that the registration is successful, and the system automatically directs the new user to member’s page. However, users can also cancel their registration by clicking the registration button. The Login page leads the user to where they can enter their user e-mail addresses and password in order to gain access to their account and member’s pag e. Users have the option of ‘remember my log in details’, which they can confirm or reject. The system also has a Log out button for users who have completed their transactions. Once in the member’s area or in the account section, users can browse the available list of e-books, reviews, and ratings. User can also add comments and rate a book. They can choose a book of their interests and review its content before making a decision to purchase. Users can click on the remove button to remove an item from a list, or they can click on the cancel button to abandon the entire process. The customer can make the order and specify the quantity. All items have their price tags. The system has automatic total price calculation, which the customer can see at the bottom of the list. The payment button allows the customer to enter his or her payment information based on the preferred method. They can also cancel the transaction at this stage. The price list and total price are visible to the customer. The payment process requires the necessary customer’s information. A customer can choose to pay by card or use online payment solutions. In the case of online payment, the customer will just enter the e-mail address and link to the payment account. He will then confirm the required fields and verify information entered. The card option shall require the name, card number, and date of expiry. The process must undergo all security verification procedures before the customer can execute payment. The customer can then click the ‘confirmation’ and ‘submit button’ in order to execute the transaction. They can also cancel the order at this stage. The system automatically generates transaction details and sends to the customer activity section, personal e-mail, and specified mobile number. In addition, the notification and confirmation message also appears on the screen. Site Implementation After the prototype stage, the designer mu st now implement the site. In this phase, the designer only dealt with three phases. The first phase involves the implementation of the site structure design. The aim is to ensure that the designer distributed all contents of the prototype in a way that is user-friendly and logical. The designer had various users’ behaviors in mind and used WSDM (Web search and data mining) as the guiding principle in the process. However, the designer also recognized that he could not foresee future behaviors of the users. Therefore, the decision was on a speculative approach. Whereas the designer could measure other technical aspects like financial, time, and technical challenges, he could not measure users’ behaviors when using the site. The second phase involved the presentation of the design of the Web site. The aim was to create a favorable feel and look of the site. In this process, the designer used a layout that accounted for users’ characteristics and mission of the co mpany. The designer used templates in order to reduce several cases of testing, create a consistent design, and enhance the speed of the process. The approach allowed the designer to use automated codes and other graphic parts. The use of the templates also ensured that the Web site had a good layout for controlling different pages and functions. In fact, the designer realized that it was simple and cost-effective to use templates that only require insertion of information in the fields. The third phase was the logical data design, which aimed to provide appropriate data for users. The designer presented information in various chunks and parts. This process only strived to ensure that customers got the necessary information they sought. Thus, the designer concentrated on developing a perfect ontology for data. The designer used XML tool in this process. During the site implementation process, the designer ensured that the database was maintainable, allow for modification, could not interfere with other functions, and fast enough for users. Overall, the logical data design remained useful to the programmer. The designer relied on a Query Builder in order to develop such a database with a logical design. The designer used Web Builder tool like WYSIWYG (What-You-See-Is-What-You-Get) to develop different Web pages. WYSIWYG allowed the designer to customize the site due to its several features, scripts, and templates. The Adobe Dreamweaver supported several processes, improved the workflow, and reduced time during the coding process. It had library code snippets server debug, and other coding tools. The designer could view the CSS as a whole unit. This made the process simple by allowing the user designer to see the style, identify areas for changes, and edit the style without changing the code. The designer generated important features like object chunks, structure of the site, navigation systems, logical data system, design templates, page model, images, text are as, logo areas, and typo styles. Testing Functionality Testing The designer tested for links of Web pages, connections, cookies, links for information submission and receiving. It also involved testing for â€Å"internal links, e-mail links, orphan pages, broken links, and links going to the same page† (Ash 23). Testing also covers all pages. Forms validate all lists in every field and default values. The designer also tested for cookies and HTML/CSS. Users could scroll the site without difficulties. Database testing This tested for consistency of information in the site, query results, retrieval, and updates. Usability Testing This involved testing for the ease of navigation, usage, clear instructions, and availability of the Main menu. There were no spelling errors. Color and font were visible. All contents were within the frame. All images had appropriate size. Interface Testing The designer tested for interface elements like â€Å"Web server and database server† (A sh 23). The designer ensured that all interface features interacted properly. There was a logical model for handling errors from application servers. The designer also tested for effects of interruption during transactions. The system always requested the user to cancel and confirm the process. Compatibility Testing This involved testing with different browsers, the mobile version, and printing options due different configuration. The Web site must match these standards. The designer used cross browser to ensure compatibility with the major browsers. AJAX required testing for user interface functionality, security testing, and other validation processes. The designer tested the Web site on various browsers like Firefox, Safari, Internet Explorer, and Opera browser among others. OS compatibility The designer tested for the Web site â€Å"functionality and compatibility with the various Operating Systems† (Nguyen, Johnson and Hackett 34). Not all graphic designs and interfaces may be compatible with the current Operating Systems. The designer tested OS like Windows, Solaris, and Linux among others. Mobile browsing The new age of technology has shifted to mobile devices, and mobile devices have increased Internet accessibility. Therefore, the designer tested for the Web site on a mobile browser for compatibility (Nguyen, Johnson and Hackett 34). Printing options Customers who wish to print their transaction details should not experience challenges. The designer tested for suitability of fonts, graphics, and page alignment for proper printing. Performance testing The Web site should bear the greatest load and stress. The designer tested for loading and connection speed. The system could handle several requests, large data, and connection to database and upload to certain pages. Stress testing The designer tested if the system could â€Å"handle large loads beyond its specified limits† (Nguyen, Johnson and Hackett 34). The areas of focus included log in, registration pages, and other input fields. The crash report was significant for future improvements. The designer also tested for stress functionality on various browsers, Oss, hardware, and, memory capacities, and software. Security Testing Finally, the designer tested for the Web site security features. The system had the ability to record all transactions, error messages, and unauthorized attempts of logins. Releasing The Web site was ready for a release after testing. The designer observed whether the Web site met users’ expectations. Users had the option of proving feedback about the overall site experience. The process also involved measures of goals and any possible correction required for the Web site functionality and usability. The Web site shall require constant maintenance in terms of improving current features, technology improvement, and changes in the visual features. In addition, the site shall require regular update of available books. Ambler, Scott. Us er Interface Design Tips, Techniques, and Principles. 2012. Web. Ash, Lydia. The Web Testing Companion: The Insiders Guide to Efficient and Effective Tests. New York: Wiley, 2003. Print. Booch, Grady, James Rumbaugh and Ivar Jacobson. The Unified Modeling Language User Guide, 2nd ed. Boston: Addison-Wesley, 2005. Print. Eccher, Clint. Professional Web Design: Techniques and Templates, 4th ed. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, 2011. Print. Nguyen, Hung, Robert Johnson and Michael Hackett. Testing Applications on the Web: Test Planning for Mobile and Internet-Based Systems, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 2003. Print.

The myth of American Dream Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The myth of American Dream - Essay Example The American dream is that America is the land of opportunity that all can equally avail of; with immense possibilities and opportunities for upward mobility. It is closely related to the myth of meritocracy that those who work hard â€Å"will enjoy and profit from these opportunities† (Loupe & Ojeda 1). Thesis Statement: The purpose of this paper is to investigate the American dream, and the myths related to the concept. The American Dream The American dream includes not only the hope for a brighter future and a formula for success, but also knowledge of outcomes from the fulfillment of the dream. The outcomes include home ownership, improving life chances for children which is today denoted as sending them to college, â€Å"having a chance to get rich, and achieve a secure and comfortable retirement† (McNamee & Miller 9). The prospects for making the American dream come true have declined in recent years, leading to American workers feeling pessimistic about the futur e. Social Mobility and Economic Success The American dream of the promised land of opportunities denotes the possibility and opportunity for social mobility. Economic prosperity is considered to result in upward mobility, with inceasing income leading to a better position in society. Social and economic mobility are mutually related, and both are closely related to income. The American dream is mainly based on the promise of mobility in the economic ladder. According to Browne (p.1), â€Å"the ability of American families to move up or down the income ladder within a lifetime or from one generation to the next, is a unifying and core tenet of the American dream†. Since opportunity is a core element in social mobility and financial success, education is a determining factor for getting opportunities. â€Å"Education is often considered to be at the heart of the social class equation† (Steinberg 269). In a society that values and rewards knowledge and associates it with power, education plays a crucial role in achieving social and economic success. Individualism as the Basis of the American Dream The American dream is founded on an emphasis on the individual and on individualism. Significantly, individualism as the basis of the American dream is deeply rooted in the â€Å"religious, political, economic, and cultural experience of America as a nation of immigrants† (McNamee & Miller 4). Toqueville defines individualism as â€Å"a mature and calm feeling which disposes each member of the community to sever himself from the mass of his fellow creatures† (p.118). He particularly distinguished individualism from egotism; and linked individualism to equality and the absence of aristocracy. Thus, in America people were free to achieve, not through hereditary title, but on their own merit. Therefore the emerging concept of the American dream included both political freedom from tyranny, and also economic freedom to achieve success through one ’s own merits (McNamee & Miller 7). The Myth of the American Dream During the European colonization of America, the indigenous people of America were eliminated, displaced or assimilated, while the imported immigrants who formed other minority groups were exploited for their labor to â€Å"develop the vast resources of America, generate incredible wealth, build its infrastructure and establish cities, towns and industries that would be administered by the

Ready means of fashion through which individuals can make visual Essay

Ready means of fashion through which individuals can make visual statements - Essay Example The essay "Ready means of fashion through which individuals can make visual statements" analyzes fashion ready means and visual identity. According to the theory of the Leisure class, some people may struggle to distinguish themselves form others. This is may be by dressing in extremely expensive clothes. Some people also go to extreme ways of looking even different through plastic surgery and cosmetic surgery (Tseëlon, 1995). Wolf infers that women have, in most cases suffered for beauty. This is by trying to portray their identities and lifestyles. According to her, women have the right to expresses themselves the way they want. Women are increasingly modifying their bodies to look different. This is by turning to plastic surgery cosmetic surgery and anti aging products in order to look perfect. Women are using their bodies as a display of identity, class and income. This got contributed mainly by the use of the body as a symbol in marketing, advertising, and in business to dis play a particular image. Fashion industry improves women’s lives by provides them with ways to visually express their personally and professionally (wolf, 2002). Wolf condemns the way women and represented in fashion and how they got treated by largely patriarchal societies around the world. In most cases, women like to express them as young. This leads them to using plastic surgery, diets, make up and aging prevention treatments. Aging psychologically and socially affects women in regards to fashion.